acids defined by ability to increase the concentration of hydrogen ions
in water -- pH is a molarity scale -- bases remove hydrogen ions (usually
producing hydroxide ions), buffers stabilize pH
interacts with non-polar compounds through exclusion (hydrophobic interactions)
calcium regulation -- calcitonin (decrease) and parathyroid hormone (increase)
iron metabolism and the role of the liver
laws of thermodynamics
major energy molecules: ATP and NADH
sources of ATP
substrate-level ATP formation
electron-transport ATP formation and aerobic respiration (in the mitochondria
of eukaryotes)
builds up a hydrogen ion concentration across the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion as electrons move from molecule to molecule of an electron
transport chain through a series of exergonic reactions
the energy associated with the hydrogen ions is used to glue a phosphate
ion on to an ADP, forming ATP
energy molecules
ATP from glucose
glycolysis, the initial splitting of glucose releases a net of 2 ATP and
2 NADH; key intermediates and end-products include energized fructose,
PGAL, and pyruvate
if unable to use the NADH to make ATP then continue with some sort of fermentation
pyruvate moves to mitochondria, forming more NADH; carbon dioxide and acetyl-coenzyme
A produced
Krebs cycle removes the rest of the energy from the remains of the pyruvate
(the acetyl), producing 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP for each acetyl; key
intermediates include citrate, alpha-keto-glutarate, succinate, malate,
and oxaloacetate
each NADH can be used to make 3 ATP and each FADH2 can be used to make
2 ATP, for a total of about 36-38 ATP for each glucose molecule
energy from starches
energy from triglycerides
first separate into fatty acids and glycerol
the glycerol is converted to PGAL
the fatty acids are converted to acetyl-coenzyme A
energy from protein
first separate into amino acids and remove the amino group (deamination)
converted to urea
remove any other nitrogen or sulfur groups
feed the remaining carbon skeleton into glycolysis or Krebs as appropriate
energy requirements -- basal metabolic rate; for humans roughly 12 times
body weight; physical activity increases the requirement
Acquiring and transferring nutrients
digestive systems
basic digestive systems
the human system: mouth-pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine
modifications: cows and dinosaurs
respiratory systems
gills vs lungs; transfer of chemicals
blood and hemoglobin; properties of hemoglobin
circulatory systems
arteries, veins, and capillaries
mechanisms of flow
cardiac cycle and four-chambered heart
blood pressure
sroke volume and pulse rate (acetylcholine and epinephrine)
vasoconstriction and vasodilation (histamine, angiotensins)
blood volume (ADH) and blood viscosity (erythropoietin)
capillary exchange
more on homeostasis
Defense systems
general defenses
skin and associated chemicals (lysozyme, acids) and bacteria (the resident
flora)
clot formation
cascade of reactions ending with prothrombin to thrombin, which catalyzes
the reaction fibrinogen to fibrin
note that we also need to remove clots on cue; this is done through another
cascade of reactions ending with conversion of plasminogen to plasmin through
the action of tissue plasminogen activators
inflammation response using histamine and the complement system
directed (specific) defenses -- based on specific protein receptors that
match elements of the invader
white blood cells -- neutrophils, macrophages, and B and T lymphocytes;
plasma cells
chemicals -- antigens and antibodies, interleukins and lymphokines, MHC
proteins
cell-mediated response -- based on T-cell activity
helper T-cells are activated by antigen-bearing macrophages, produce lymphokines
lymphokines stimulate the production and response of cytotoxic T-cells
only target cells with antigens and MHC I -- altered self cells
antibody system
antibodies produced by B lymphocytes in response to signals from helper
T-cells
antibodies bind to invader and target for complement and for killer T-cells
applications
blood-typing and Rh factors
natural vs acquired immunity
passive vs active acquired immunity
autoimmunity
Human death and disease
major sources of mortality
world-wide: respiratory infections -- 7 million world; diarrheal
disease -- 4.2 million;
TB -- 3.3 million; malaria -- 1 to 2 million; hepatitis -- 1 to 2 million
US: cardiovascular diseases and cancer are far and away the leading causes
of death; cerebrovascular disease and chronic pulmonary disease are next
in line, tied with accidental death
epidemiology
infectious vs non-infectious disease
susceptibility (genetic?) and risk factors (behavioral?)
risk assessment
major risk factors -- poor diet, tobacco, alcohol abuse, lack of exercise