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Valdosta State University |
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Valdosta State University |
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Chapter l Study Questions/objectives
l. Define the following terms: pedagogy; educational psychology; principles; laws; theories; research; treatment; variable ( independent and dependent [two types of dependent: demographic and performance]); experiment; random assignment; internal validity; external validity; hypothesis; single and double-blind control; attitudes of science; replication
2. List/describe the two kinds of tools Ed. psychology provides teachers.
3. The primary goal of research in educational psychology (EP) is data-based instruction. What does data-based instruction mean? Describe the remaining three goals associated with research in EP (hint: Control, Understanding, and Predicition)? What is the goal of research in educational psychology (EP)? Describe the five primary characteristics of EP as they apply to Preinstructional, Instructional, and Postinstructional activities.
EP globally views education as having five primary tasks divided into three phases:
Preinstructional Instructional Postinstructional
objectives pedagogy evaluation
learner characteristics
how learning occurs
If evaluation shows that some/all learners did not master objectives, remediation should be provided; if learners have mastered the material, one starts the cycle over with new material.
4. Describe the difference/similarity between: basic & applied research; descriptive & experimental research; laboratory & field studies; experimental & control groups; group & single-subject studies
5. Describe the relationship between the two types of validity and randomization procedures.
6. List & describe the types of descriptive studies.
7. List & describe the three types of correlations. What is the primary disadvantage of a correlational study?
8. Given a hypothesis, set-up a simple experiment to test the hypothesis (e.g., the steps, in order, a scientist would follow to collect data and test the hypothesis).
9. What is the difference between a "teaching" and "learning" environment? Starting on p. 322 of your text, there is a discussion of Bloom's Mastery Learning and the Keller Plan. Both of these pedagogies are derived from Carroll's theory of learning and instruction. Identify which pedagogy exemplifies the teaching environment and which the learning, and explain the basis for your decision.
Chapter 1 Review
l. Teaching requires that the instructor have (a)knowledge and information that the learner does not, and (b) the specialized skills necessary to impart/teach/develop proficiency in the students (pedagogy).
Public schools typically reflect what educational psychologists call a teaching environment because the public school teacher is responsible for whether the students learn or not. Academic outcomes for public school students are usually set at the lowest common denominator in order for most (all?) students to achieve them given appropriate instruction and support. Non-public schools such as colleges, some private schools, and some higher-track classes in the public schools, on the other hand, are often referred to as learning environment because the student is responsible for learning the information irrespective of whether the teacher presents the information, or if it is presented in a pedagogically sound manner.
A. A good teacher (one who effectively instructs) must accomplish each of the following "roles" almost simultaneously: (a) leadership through both classroom management and organization of daily, etc., routines; (b) prepared lesson plans ("blueprints") that take into account the intellectual and social abilities of the students , and that are interesting and motivating; and (c) frequently (formally and informally) assess student progress and remediate instructional/student deficiencies.
2. Educational psychology (EP) combines empirically-derived principles that are associated with the effective and efficient transmission of information and behavior within learning environments. Teachers need several specific tools in order to accomplish this task: knowledge about how learning occurs at various ages, and how to increase their (i.e., the teachers') instructional effectiveness in the classroom.
3. The primary goal of EP is data-based instruction (The other goals of the field are control-being able to alter/change an event, understanding-being able to explain why or how an event occurred, and prediction-being able to accurately state when an event is likely to occur.) Thus, research is an important strategy of educational psychologists. Empirical research produces: (a) principles which describe (sometimes functionally) relationships between variables; (b) laws which are principles that generalize to a variety of situations and individuals; and (c) theories which are principles and laws which organize and account for the occurrence/nonoccurrence of broad phenomena. Data-based instruction occurs when the materials (textbooks, software, films, etc.) and teaching methods (pedagogies) we use are based on research. In other words, they've been field tested to show that they are at least as good as other materials/methods available. The remaining goals of all research (not just EP's) are control, understanding, and prediction. Control is when a researcher is able to change the performance of subjects; understanding is knowing how or why certain events (e.g., student performance, etc.) occur, and prediction is being able to specify when/if a particular event is likely to occur.
Educators should, before teaching,
have (a) developed objectives about what the students are to learn,
(b) know about how humans learn, and (c) understand the characteristics
of learners at different ages. These factors allow teachers to use/develop
sound pedagogical techniques to teach new information to their students.
After instruction, a good teacher must know how to accurately assess
student performance in order to decide whether to repeat these steps with
new information or to recycle the students through the previous steps in
order to remediate.
Research
Applied Basic
DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL
field lab
Group Single-Case
a. Naturalistic observation.
b. Paper and pencil
Standardized tests and Surveys (interviews/questionnaires)
c. Clinical/case studies
The above outline shows the relations between the various types of research. Research is a set of methods used to collect objective information (data). [Bad data are worse than no data because bad data look impressive and most people don't have the expertise to evaluate the goodness of data. Unfortunately, bad data lead to bad conclusions and decisions. If one has no data supporting a conclusion or decision, most people will assume that the conclusion is an opinion or that the decision was made arbitrarily.] All research is basic or applied; basic research are those studies that are done in order to increase our knowledge while applied studies are run to both increase our knowledge and solve a specific problem(s).
The three types of descriptive studies (naturalistic observations, paper and pencil-standardized tests and surveys, and clincial/case studies), as the name suggests, only describe events as objectively as possible. They tell one what happened, when, where and to whom, but not why. Additionally, descriptive studies use only dependent variables. Most dependent variables are measures of subjects' performance but they can also be either subject characteristics (e.g., sex, age, weight, etc.) or demographic characteristics (educational level, SES, etc.). In some descriptive studies (e.g., correlational) researchers sometimes PRETEND that demograph/organismic (subject and demographic) variables are independent ones (of course they are not); thus, the results of this type of correlational study (and quasi experimental ones) still cannot be used to explain why the event did/didn't occur
Naturalistic studies surreptitiously collect data (qualitative and quantitative information that is converted to numbers to allow for easier organization and analysis) in one's natural environment without altering the environment. Standardized tests are instruments that measure human ability. Surveys are instruments that measure beliefs, attitudes, and opinions. The case study (a type of interpretive research) is a subjective summary (usually of one person or one "case") of events that occur during a finite time period.
A second form of research, correlational studies, compare two or more dependent variables to determine if a predictive (one of the goals of EP-CUP) relationship exists between the variables. Correlations are expressed as coefficients that can be positive (both variables move in the same direction at the same time), negative (an inverse relationship; as one goes up the second goes down), or zero (null information but it can be valuable to know that knowledge of one variable does not permit an accurate prediction of the value of another).
Experimental studies are used to establish causal relationships. True experiments require that an independent variable (a treatment) be manipulated to determine how it affects/changes a dependent variable (usually subjects' performance rather than organismic ones since the latter are usually unalterable). Experimental studies, like most descriptive ones, can be "run" either in a real life setting (field) or in a more tightly controlled environment (the laboratory). Often, lab studies are run first then an attempt is made to replicate the study in the field (this is important since results obtained in a "clean" environment sometimes don't generalize to the more complex/"dirty" real world-that is, the results of a study done in the field are more likely to be tainted by uncontrolled [i.e., extraneous] variables than those run in a lab). The majority of studies done in EP are group experiments requiring random selection & a statistical analysis. Still, much valuable research reflects what is known as single-subject/single-case (reversal and multiple-baseline) designs (they can use one subject or small groups of subjects). Data from these studies usually are not analyzed statistically.
4. Some terms:
Attitudes of science:
parsimony-when 2 or more theories/definitions equally explain some event, use the simpler; it is less likely to have an exception to it;
determinism-the belief that all events have natural causes
skepticism-without good objective data and replication, be a doubting Thomas
empiricism-knowledge is derived from sound research producing objective data
serendipity-chance discovery
scientific manipulation-process used to establish cause and effect.
Independent variable (treatment in an experimental study); dependent variable (a measure of performance and/or demographics taken on Ss in a study); extraneous variables(uncontrolled events that could bias the results of a study); internal & external validity: internal validity-the extent to which one believes that the results of a study are accurate--were the meaurements taken in the study appropriate for the purpose of the study, etc.? In experimental research it also involes whether we believe that the measured change in a D. V. was produced by the I. V. rather than extraneous ones [it's a product of random assignment in group studies, and "within subject" replications for single-subject designs]; external validity-the extent to which one is able to generalize results from one group/individual to other, similar groups/individuals or settings [results from random sampling and replications in group studies, and replications in single-subject studies]; randomization (processes used to select and assign Ss so that all members of the larger group have an equal chance of being included in a smaller); hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between variables that is evaluated based on the outcome of a study; scientific method (identify researchable problem, collect data, analyze data, interpret results in the context of previous studies and theoretical orientation, revise/develop theory). Replication is dependent on researchers providing enough detailed information about their research (e.g., subjects, design, how analyzed, how data were collected, sequence of events, etc.) in their methods and procedures section so that another researcher could follow their "recipe" and rerun the study and obtain similar results. When a study is replicated it is considered more valid. [Most single-subj. studies build a replication into the design itself.]
Single- and double-blind control
procedures are used in both group and single-subject descriptive and experimental
research to control for subject bias (single-blind), or both subject and
researcher bias (double-blind). The idea behind both of these blind procedures
is that if subjects, and/or the person who actually collects and analyzes
the data in a study, does not know the true purpose of the study, they
cannot bias the results. Of course, researchers should always obtain informed
consent from subjects, and should also debrief subjects about the true
purpose of the study once the data are collected.
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Last Updated: May 20, 1997