How to Use the '94 APA Style Guide

Valdosta State University
Department of Psychology
PSY310 Educational Psychology
Instructor: John H. Hummel, Ph.D.

How to Use the '94 APA Style Guide

John H. Hummel and Daniel J. Kaeck

John H. Hummel and Daniel J. Kaeck

Originally published (1995, September) in volume 8 (issue 5) of the APS Observer, 16-22.

Adequate undergraduate education, regardless of discipline, requires development of an array of cognitive and communicative skills. Increasingly, cognitive scientists identify critical thinking ability as the hallmark of an educated person. Components of critical thinking include comprehension, analysis, and synthesis, among others (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). As college students develop problem-solving and analytical skills, technical writing becomes a primary means of expressing those behaviors.

Writing may be not only an expression of critical thought but also a vehicle to stimulate and shape it. Although there are obvious methodological and substantive differences among scientific disciplines, all require technical writing and most engage beginning students who are often unaware of specialized writing conventions. With widespread implementation of such strategies as "writing across the curriculum," the sciences contribute by providing a fertile environment for the attainment of technical writing according to convention. Scholars' widespread use of the fourth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (l994) across many disciplines suggests the need for an expedient means of disseminating the essential features of this editorial style guide. Psychology students, like those of most other disciplines, invariably encounter difficulties in preparing papers that conform to the style of the American Psychological Association (APA). The manual's length and detail are daunting, and it may be impractical for use in meeting the requirements of initial laboratory writing assignments.

This article attempts to provide a simplified guide for the development of technical writing skills reflecting the recommendations in the manual. Using a task-analytical perspective, the intent was to summarize the most essential features of this editorial style and include sufficient suggestions and examples to assist the undergraduate student with the organization and presentation of data-based reports and review papers that conform to this latest edition of the Publication Manual.

Paper Organization

In terms of writing style, the Publication Manual stresses the importance of brevity, orderliness, and flow of ideas as well as decorum in phrasing. Consistency of verb tense facilitates the flow of thought and avoids distracting the reader. Past and present perfect tense are suggested for the Introduction and Procedure sections, while past tense alone and present tense, respectively, are recommended for the Results and Discussion sections. Although not explicitly stated, the Participants portion of the Method section is presented in past tense, as would normally be the case for Apparatus, Materials, and Design sections. If, for example, the materials consisted of a copyrighted test, use of the present tense to describe this instrument would be appropriate. Finally, the Abstract should be presented in the same verb tense used in each respective section from which the content is drawn.

Flow of writing is enhanced by use of first-person pronouns (I and we) and is preferred over such phrases as "the Researcher(s)" when referring to oneself or the study's authors. Again, although not explicit in the manual, the use of the second person (you) in the Results section is not considered appropriate; preferred are expressions where "you" is understood ("Note the findings in Table 1...") or the passive form ("It should be noted from Table 1..."). Logical sequencing of ideas fosters orderliness of presentation. Logical connection of ideas is reflected in the use of linking sentences and phrases at the beginning or ending of each paragraph. Avoiding jargon, excessive detail, hyperbole, stereotypes (ageism, sexism), clichès, and editorializing (i.e., do not stray from the facts) contributes to clarity, brevity, and good taste.

APA-formatted manuscripts are left justified, double spaced, and usually consist of distinct sections, some with subsections. The major sections normally use first-level headings while subsections are third level. (Headings are described in greater detail in another section.)

A paper always begins with a title page. The first line of the title page (left justified) is the paper's running head, which captures the essence of the title though in an abbreviated form. The remaining parts of the title page are center justified (middle of the page), and include the title, author(s), and affiliation of the author(s). The title of the paper should succinctly identify the nature of the investigation and variables/issues studied. In the title, wording such as "investigation of..." or "study of..." is avoided because it is unnecessary. The name of the author(s) is presented under the title. The last line on the title page lists the affiliation (institution) of the author(s).

The second page consists of the Abstract. The Abstract of data-based reports provides the reader with a 100-120 word overview of the entire study (the abstract for a review article is 75-100 words). An introductory statement specifies the significance or nature of the problem. How and with whom the investigation was conducted and what was found are essential elements of the abstract. Results are reported in terms of the nature of the findings, tests employed, level of statistical significance, and bearing upon hypotheses. Conclusions are briefly stated along with implications. The actual body of the paper begins on page 3.

The introduction section of all APA Style reports is headed by the title of the manuscript without the use of the term "introduction." The text begins immediately thereafter with broad statements describing the importance of this field of study and/or major theories addressing the topic. To develop a smooth introduction, a simple strategy is employed. First, studies are reviewed which are increasingly relevant and exclusive to the matter under investigation or reviewed in a chronological sequence or within a conceptually-organized format. This section concludes with a problem statement and hypotheses. In short, the introduction provides a logical progression from the general to the specific and precise nature of the research problem. The next portion of the report is designated by the first-level heading "Method."

Method

The Method section is comprised, normally, of three subsections: Participants, Apparatus (or Materials), and Procedure. They are designated by third-level headings which means that they are underlined and placed at the left margin.

The participants section describes the sample and how participants were selected. (The term "participants" is recommended for use when referring to humans; "subjects" is preferred for infrahumans.) The standard to determine how extensively the sample is described in terms of classification variables (age, gender, race, and so forth) consists of that which is necessary for subsequent researchers to know about this sample in order to replicate the study.

The apparatus (i.e., equipment) or materials (i.e., assessment instruments such as tests, surveys, handouts) section provides a sufficient description of these items to acquaint the reader with the measuring devices without presenting laborious detail. Place copies of materials used, if at all lengthy, in an appendix.

Procedure refers to what was done in all conditions/phases of the study (e.g., how and when the independent variable was introduced in the study). Data analyses are not reported until the Results section. If the design, complexity, number, or sequence of conditions is excessive, a fourth section with the third-level heading Design, may be added.

Results

The Results section begins with a first-level heading and immediately follows the Methods section. Here, the study's findings are objectively reported without interpretation or explanation. It is a desirable practice to present major findings first; they consist of the tests or statistical comparisons which address the main hypotheses and problem statement. Secondary findings consist of unexpected results or comparisons which emerged from higher order interactions identified by ANOVA or results not directly related to the hypotheses. The reader's attention should be directed to significant findings which will subsequently be discussed in the last section of the report. Depiction of data and results in tables with appropriate labeling and figures (e.g., graphs) is often useful but redundancy with material already depicted in one form or another should be avoided. Descriptive data rendered in tables or figures need not again be presented in the text except to emphasize salient features.

It is assumed that the reader is knowledgeable regarding statistics. The type of statistic reported and the degrees of freedom are noted, along with the value obtained in the comparison, and the alpha or probability level (usually .05, .01, or .001). For example, if a t test was used to analyze the mean difference between two groups with 38 degrees of freedom, the in-text report of the finding is stated as follows: t(38) = 2.19, p < .05. Because most statistical computer programs yield exact probability levels, these may be reported (rounded to the nearest hundredths place) when the findings are either significant or nonsignificant. But in the latter instance, the a priori alpha level is used.

Again, in the Results section the findings are not discussed in terms of their implications or theoretical relevance. It is simply indicated that a particular analysis was employed to test a given hypothesis which resulted in confirmation or disconfirmation. The Results section of a report might have a statement similar to this: "Contrary to the hypothesis regarding gender, it was found that females produced significantly higher SAT Quantitative scores than did males." The following is not, however, appropriate: "This finding casts doubt on results obtained by Chance and Guess (1993)." This statement is inappropriate because it is an interpretation of a result which belongs in the Discussion section.

Discussion

The Discussion portion of the paper begins with an interpretation the most salient and germane findings, relating them to existing research cited in the Introduction. Explanation is provided for differences in results between the present study and those previously reviewed. This section gradually broadens in its scope to include limitations of the present methodology, alternative explanations of the findings, suggestions for future research, and implications, when appropriate, for applied practice. It is important to remain modest in the assessment of the relevance of the findings to theoretical or applied problems while being concise and direct. The recommended practice is to limit speculation, avoid rationalization of nonsignificant statistical results, and focus on the most important findings related to the problem statement or hypotheses. All APA Style papers end with a References section that lists the sources cited in the report.

The remainder of this paper is divided into three areas: Typing instructions, citations used in the paper, and reference page construction. Instructions consist of a list of do's and don'ts with examples and referrals to the Publication Manual where appropriate. The paper concludes with a checklist to help ensure that APA Style requirements are met.

Typing Instructions

l. For details not specifically addressed, refer to chapter four, pp. 235-257, of the manual.

2. Make margins should be uniform and a minimum of 1 inch on all sides. (Each page should contain no more than 27 lines of 12-point type using a standard font such as Geneva, Times, or Courier. Do not use special type styles such as script or italics.)

3. Typed and word-processed manuscripts should be left-justified.

4. Do not hyphenate words at the end of a sentence; end each line of text with a complete word.

5. Double-space all lines including references.

6. Number all pages starting with the title page. Page numbers are located in the upper-right corner of each page 1 inch in from the right margin and between the top of the page and its 1 inch margin. (Esthetically, there should be a double-space between the page number and the the first line of type.)

7. All APA Style manuscripts have a title page. Information on the title page is centered left-to-right in the middle of the page. It should contain: The paper's title (10-12 words), name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation of the author(s). If used, a running head of up to 50 characters is the first line on the title page and is typed flush with the left margin at the top of the title page. The first two or three words of the paper's title will appear in the header of each subsequent page either 5 spaces to the left of the page number, or one double-spaced line above the page number (flush with the right margin).

Example A: Title Page for a Term Paper

Running head: USING BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Training Teachers to Use Behavior Modification

Ima A. Student

PSY 310A

Example B: Article Summaries/Critiques

Summary of Hummel, Abercrombie, and Koepsel's

"Teaching Students to Analyze Examples

of Classical Conditioning"

Ima A. Student

PSY 702B

8. Term papers and data-based reports have an abstract unless otherwise indicated by the professor. (Article summaries and critiques usually do not have either an abstract or running head.) The abstract is always on a page by itself (page 2 of the paper). Center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page. The abstract for a review paper is 75 to 100 words, while those for data-based papers range in length between 100 and 120 words. The abstract is a blocked (no indentation) paragraph that summarizes the content of the paper and does not exceed 960 characters.

9. Consistently and uniformly indent (either 5, 6, or 7 spaces from the left margin) new paragraphs.

10. Most papers will require headings when switching topics. Headings should be as brief as possible. (Note: The first section of a term paper, the introduction, does not have a heading.) There are five levels of headings used in APA Style manuscripts. Many papers use only one or two levels of headings. If a paper uses only one level, it should be Level 1 which employs centered words that are capitalized if they are four or more characters, verbs, pronouns, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs (prepositions and conjunctions are not capitalized). Papers needing two levels of headings should use Levels 1 and 3; those requiring three levels should use 1, 3, and 4. Level 3 headings are underlined, and begin at the left margin. Level 4 headings are indented, underlined, and end with a period. All headings should be brief and describe the section being introduced. Levels 1 and 3, as the following illustrates:

Level One

Level Three

Level Four.

Refer to pp. 90-93 (sections 3.30-3.32) and pp. 242-243 (sections 4.09-4.10) of the Publication Manual for more detailed directions on headings.

11. In general, words and phrases are not emphasized through the use of bold print, underlining, italics, single/double quote marks, or all uppercase characters. Instead, writers must construct sentences so that emphasis is understood. The exceptions to this rule are described and illustrated in section 3.06, pp. 65-66, of the manual.

Citations

1. Each quotation is accompanied by a parenthetical citation that includes the name(s) of the author(s), the publication date, and the page(s) where the quotation is located. Follow the "5-word" rule: If 5 or more words from the source are used and in the same order in your paper, the rules for quoting need to be followed. All paraphrased works must also be cited parenthetically within the body of the paper with one exception: If summarizing/critiquing a single article, paraphrasing does not have to be referenced. Always paraphrase accurately. Citations for paraphrased works require the surnames of the authors and the date (one may also cite the page(s) where the paraphrased content is located). When a work has multiple authors the citation should link the last author's name with the others using the ampersand symbol (&) if the citation is in parenthesis; otherwise the word "and" is used (see examples A-D).

2. Use only the sources that you have actually read. However, if there is no alternative the guidelines presented on pp. 200-201, example # 22 of Appendix 3-A of the Publication Manual must be followed. The first time a work is cited, all authors (if 5 or less) are cited in order, by their surnames. If the work has one or two authors, cite all of them by their surnames each time the work is cited. If the work has three or more authors, cite all of them in the first parenthetical reference. Later references will parenthetically cite the first author's surname followed by the expression "et al.," date, and specific page number(s) if the reference is a direct quotation. If the work has more than five authors, the citation consists of the primary author's surname followed by et al. All authors of the work are listed in the reference entry. When a point is made by multiple sources, alphabetize them using the primary authors' surnames in the parenthetical citation, and separate them with semicolons.

Example of a Citation Listing Multiple Sources

Psychologists have been slow to develop behavioral taxonomies that classify processes and operations or behavior (Catania, 1984). Those classification and notational systems that do exist (Grant, l964; Hall, l976; Mechner, 1959; Millenson, l967; Schoenfeld et al., 1972; Snapper, Kadden, & Inglis,1982; Woods, l974 ) are infrequently used (Catania 1984), and appear to be too detailed and complex for undergraduates enrolled in introductory courses to readily comprehend and use. (Hummel, Kaeck, Bowes, & Rittenhouse, 1994, p. 4)

3. Obtain permission to quote when necessary. APA-copyrighted works require written permission before using a total of over 500 words from that work. Quotations from a single source should be limited to fewer than 500 words.

4. A complete quotation of less than 40 words should be incorporated within the paper's text, begun and ended with double quotation (i.e., " ") marks, and must be followed by a parenthetical reference citing the author(s), date of publication, and the page(s) where the quotation is printed.

Example A: Embedded Text Reference for Paraphrasing

Although many behavioral scientists feel that punishment should never be used, Deitz and Hummel (l978) offer two situations where it may be ethical to use the procedure.

Example B: Embedded Text Reference for Paraphrasing

There are two situations where punishment procedures may be warranted: When all other deceleration methods have failed or when the behavior is a clear and present danger to self or others (Deitz & Hummel, l978).

Example C: Embedded Text Reference for Direct Quotations

Using punishment instead of other procedures to decelerate behavior is problematic. "Punishment should be reserved for only very serious misbehaviors and should be used only when other alternatives have been exhausted" (Deitz & Hummel, l978, p. 81).

Example D: Embedded Text Reference for Direct Quotations

Using punishment to decelerate behavior is problematic. According to Deitz and Hummel (l978), "Punishment should be reserved for only very serious misbehaviors and should be used only when other alternatives have been exhausted" (p. 8l).

Quotes of 40 or more words must be presented (a) as an indented (5-7 spaces from the left margin) block, (b) without quotation marks, (c) followed by a parenthetical reference that cites the page(s) where the quoted materials are located in the original work.

Example E: Direct Quotation Longer Than 39 Words

In schools, punishment is one of the most widely used procedures to decrease behavior because teachers are not familiar with other deceleration procedures, and because it works quickly and effectively.

The decision to use punishment should be made carefully. Special consideration should be given to whether or not the procedure can be implemented properly. If implemented correctly, punishment will reduce a misbehavior faster and more efficiently than any other reductive technique. However, in many cases, once the procedure is stopped, there is a high probability that the misbehavior will return to its original level unless the child has been taught alternate, desirable behavior that can be done instead of the misbehavior. (Deitz & Hummel, l978, p. 96)

Example F: Direct Quotation Longer Than 39 Words

Punishment is one of the most widely used procedures to decrease behavior in school settings because teachers are not familiar with other deceleration procedures, and because it works quickly and effectively. Still, Deitz and Hummel (l978) do not advocate reliance on punishment:

5. Quotations that cite or quote another copyrighted work should be avoided. If you must quote content that cites another source(s) you must include the other source(s) to insure that the quotation is verbatim. The other source(s) cited does not have to be referenced if this is the only place in your paper where it occurs.

6. The use of ellipsis (...) points are not recommended. These are used when one omits part of an original source (i.e., when not quoting an entire sentence). Quotations out of context can be misinterpreted. If only a portion of a sentence is quoted, the directions on p. 97, Section 3.38, of the manual should be followed.

7. Footnotes are not recommended. If necessary, their appropriate use is specified on p. 163, Section 3.87, of the manual.

Constructing References

1. The list of references is always started on a new page.

2. The word "References" should be centered at the top of the page.

3. All sources cited in the manuscript must be listed in alphabetical order in the reference list.

4. References are not bibliographies. Bibliographies refer the interested reader to additional sources for further reading that were not specifically cited in the manuscript, and are not used in APA Style manuscripts.

5. Each reference is typed double-spaced. The first line of each reference is indented either 5, 6, or 7 spaces (the same spacing used in the paper to indent paragraphs).

6. The general format for a book reference includes the following components. First, all authors are listed (in the order in which the names appeared on the original manuscript) by their surname followed by the initials of their first and middle name (if known). The date of publication is presented in parentheses after the listing of authors, and is followed by a period. The underlined title follows the publication date, and only the first word of the title is capitalized with two exceptions: Proper nouns, such as a person's name, are capitalized and when the book's complete title uses a colon, the first letter of the word following the colon is capitalized. If the book is a second or later edition, after the title, in parentheses without underlining, the edition is indicated using the following type of abbreviations: (2nd ed.). The last component of a book reference is publication information which includes the city where the book was published and the name of the publisher (city and publisher are separated by a colon). If the name and location of the city are not well known, the city's name should be followed by the abbreviation of the state where the city is located. Information about the publisher should be as brief as possible (e.g., do not use Co., Inc.). Appendix 3-A (pp. 179-222) illustrates the many variations of book references (e.g., second and later editions, edited books, corporate authors).

Example of a Book Reference

Deitz, S. M., & Hummel, J. H. (l978). Discipline in the schools: A guide to reducing misbehavior.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

7. Journal references include many of the same components used in book references, and begins with a listing of the surnames and initials for all authors, separated by commas. An ampersand (&) is used instead of the word "and" before the surname of the last author. The date of publication, in parentheses, comes after the authors' names, and is followed by a period. Only the first word in the article's title is capitalized (again, proper nouns such as a person's name or use of a colon in the article title require additional capitalization). The article title is followed by period. The next part of the journal reference is the name of the journal, underlined, with each word capitalized except for prepositions and conjunctions (e.g., of, and), followed by a comma, and the numeric volume number underlined. Issue numbers follow the volume number, in parentheses, but are only used when each issue of the journal begins with page 1; issue numbers are not underlined and there is no space between it and the volume number. An underlined comma separates the journal's volume number and the inclusive range of pages where the article is published in the journal without the abbreviation pp. or the word pages.

Example of a Journal Reference

Hummel, J. H., Abercrombie, C., & Koepsel, P. (1991). Teaching students to analyze examples of

classical conditioning. The Behavior Analyst, 14, 241-246.

8. The general format for a conference paper requires that the authors be listed the same way they are listed in book and journal references. After the authors' names the year and month of presentation, separated by a comma, is given in parentheses, followed by a period. After the presentation date is the title of the paper. It is underlined, with only the first word of the title capitalized (exceptions include proper names and the word following a colon). The title is followed by a period. The last part of a convention paper reference is a short statement naming the group to whom the paper was presented and the city and state (abbreviated) in which the meeting was held. Appendix 3-A (pp. 210-211) of the manual illustrates five variations for referencing presentations made at conventions including symposia and posters.

Example of a Reference to a Paper

Hummel, J. H., Huitt, W. G., Michael, R., & Walters, L. (1994, April). What you measure is what you get.

A data-based presentation made at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New

Orleans, LA.

9. At present, the general format for referencing electronic media is: (a) author surnames and initials separated by commas in the order in which they appear on the paper, with the last author's surname connected to the others with an ampersand (&); (b) the date, in parentheses, of publication or copyright (if not available the date of the search is used) followed by a period; (c) the full title, underlined, of the source followed, in brackets, [ ], by a description of the nature of the source (e.g., on-line, CD-ROM) ending with a period, and (d) an

availability statement that permits a reader to retrieve the document. Do not end the reference with a period.

Examples of Electronic Media Reference

Abstract.

Kerka, S. (1992). Family literacy programs and practices. [CD-ROM]. Abstract from: SilverPlatter 3.11:

ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 347 328

LaConte, M. A., Shaw, D., & Dunn, I. (1993). The effects of a rational-emotive affective education

program for high-risk middle school students. [CD-ROM]. Psychology in the Schools, 30, 274-281. Abstract

from: SilverPlatter 3.11: PsycLIT Item: 81-07567

10. The format for referencing a report deposited with the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is: (a) author surnames and initials separated by commas in the order in which they appear on the paper, with the last author's surname connected to the others with an ampersand (&); (b) the date, in parentheses, of publication or copyright (if not available, the date of the search is used) followed by a period; (c) the full title, underlined; (d) the report number, if present, in parentheses, followed by a period; (e) the source of the report (city: state, organization) followed by a period; and (f) the document's ERIC number in parentheses. The reference does not end with a period.

Example of an ERIC Document

Pollock, J. S. (1992). Chapter 1 early literacy summer school: Final evaluation report. Columbus, OH:

Columbus Public Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 350 585)

References

American Psychological Association. (l983). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association, (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychological Association. (l994). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of education objectives, handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

Catania, A. C. (l984). Learning (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Deitz, S. M., & Hummel, J. H. (l978). Discipline in the schools: A guide to reducing misbehavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Grant, D. A. (l964). Classical and operant conditioning. In A. W. Melton (Ed.), Categories of human learning (pp. 1-31). New York: Academic Press.

Hall, J. T. (l976). Classical conditioning and instrumental learning: A contemporary approach. Philadelphia: Lippincott.

Hummel, J. H., Abercrombie, C., & Koepsel, P. (1991). Teaching students to analyze examples of classical conditioning. The Behavior Analyst, 14, 241-246.

Hummel, J. H., Huitt, W. G., Michael, R., & Walters, L. (1994, April). What you measure is what you get. A data-based presentation made at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA.

Hummel, J. H., Kaeck, D. J., Bowes, R. L., & Rittenhouse, R. D. (1994, Summer). Diagraming operant processes. The ABA Newsletter, 17(2), 4-5.

Kerka, S. (1992). Family literacy programs and practices. [CD-ROM]. Abstract from: SilverPlatter 3.11: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 347 328

LaConte, M. A., Shaw, D., & Dunn, I. (1993). The effects of a rational-emotive affective education program for high-risk middle school students. [CD-ROM]. Psychology in the Schools,

30, 274-281. Abstract from: SilverPlatter 3.11: PsycLIT Item: 81-07567

Mechner, R. (1959). A notation system for the description of behavioral procedures. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2,133-150.

Millenson, J. R. (1967). Principles of behavior analysis. New York: MacMillan.

Pollock, J. S. (1992). Chapter 1 early literacy summer school: Final evaluation report. Columbus, OH: Columbus Public Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 350 585)

Schoenfeld, W. N., Cole, B. K., Blaustein, J., Lachter, G. D., Martin, J. M., & Vickery, C. (1972). Stimulus schedules. New York: Harper & Row.

Snapper, A. G., Kadden, R. M., & Inglis, G. B. (1982). State notation of behavioral procedures. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 14, 329-342.

Woods, P. J. (l974). A taxonomy of instrumental conditioning. American Psychologist, 29, 584-597.

APA Style Checklist

Typing Instructions

1. 1" margins (top, bottom, and sides) are used.

2. Double-space all lines including references.

3. Number all pages starting with the title page; page numbers located in upper-right corner of each page (not in margins).

4. Title page information is centered vertically and horizontally, and includes: paper's title, author's name, and other required information.

5. Abstract (2nd page; blocked 75-120 word paragraph).

6. New paragraphs are indented 5-7 spaces from left margin.

7. Headings are Level One (centered, 1st letters capitalized), Level Three (underlined, flush with left margin, and 1st letters capitalized), and Level Four (indented, underlined, 1st letters capitalized, and followed by a period).

8. Words/phrases are not emphasized using bold, single or double quotation marks, upper case characters, or underlining.

9. Manuscript is left-justified.

Citations

1. All works referenced are cited in manuscript.

2. Citations for paraphrased content list author(s) and date (may list pages).

3. Citations for quoted content list author(s), date, and page number(s).

4. Dates and page numbers are always in parentheses.

5. In text quotations are less than 40 words, begin and end with doubles, and usually are accompanied by a parenthetical citation before the end punctuation.

6. Long quotations of 40 or more words are indented 5-7 spaces from the left margin, do not use quotation marks, and are followed by a citation after the end punctuation that must include page numbers.

7. After the first citation (and in the 1st citation if there are 6 or more authors), sources with 3 or more authors are cited by listing the 1st author's surname followed by the Latin expression et

8. Quoted content does not cite or quote other sources. Only cite work you have read.

9. Quoted content follows the 5 word rule.

Reference(s) Page(s)

1. The references are begun on a new page.

2. The word "References" is centered at the top of the page.

3. All sources cited (and only sources cited) are listed alphabetically. (Use author names as they appear on the manuscript cited.)

4. Each reference is double-spaced. The first line of each reference is indented 5-7 spaces.

5. Book reference. Surnames followed by initials; publication date in parentheses; title (underlined); city & state where published; & publisher.

6. Journal reference. Surnames followed by initials; publication date in parentheses; article title; name of journal (underlined, and 1st letters capitalized); volume number (underlined); issue number in parentheses if needed; inclusive range of pages.

7. Convention paper. Surnames followed by initials; month and year of presentation in parentheses; paper's title (underlined); conference, city and state where presented.

8. ERIC document. Surnames followed by initials; publication date in parentheses; title, underlined; report number in parentheses; source of report; ERIC number

9. Surnames followed by initials; parenthetical publication date; title, underlined, followed by the nature of the source in brackets; and an availability statement.

Last Updated: May 20, 1997