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Valdosta State University |
Study Questions/Review |
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Valdosta State University |
Study Questions/Review |
PSY 310 Review of Chapter 7: The Lesson
I. A lesson is the pedagogy used to transmit information, concepts, and skills to learners.
Effective lessons follow this sequence:
1. Gain Ss attention and orient them to the instruction. a. start on time; b. use (not overly) humor; c. present an advance organizer, d. present/go-over BOs.
2. Review Prerequisites (go back over skills/concepts previously covered that are critical to understanding the new material).
3. Present new materials.
a. Avoid using unnecessarily complicated terms/phrases. If they are part of the lesson, be sure to define/explain/illustrate them. Use simple direct language (clarity). Don't digress from the material-it interrupts the instructional flow. Use demonstrations when appropriate. Ensure they are visual rather than only auditory and ones where students obtain "hands-on" practice are more effective than those where Ss only watch/hear another (e.g., a film is not as effective as a hands-on exercise, but is more effective than listening to a tape.) Use a variety of modes in your presentation. Don't just talk. Use the board, overheads, modulate your voice, interject questions, walk around, etc. Ausubel's expository teaching requires that information be presented in a general-to-specific order:
Expository Teaching
(general-to-specific; BOs for each main point and subpoints)
I.--------------
A.---------
B.---------
1. demo,/exercise
Contrasting Ausubel's approach is Gagnè's which requires a bottom-to-top (i.e., present details that lead to concepts; specific-to-general) approach. In either case, materil is being presented hierarchically.
(Conduct an informal assessment-a probe-after each main and subpoint. Informal (or a formal) assessment after each lesson and a formal assessment after (minimum) each topic.)
4. Learning probes. Assess Ss knowledge/competency informally within (good tactic) and always after a main or subpoint, and also used to help Ss learn new material.
a. Written exercises, physical, or oral responses to questions. Designed to "check for understanding." (If Ss aren't understanding the information-and it's critical for new material, recycle before continuing.) It is the written exercise that is often used to help Ss learn new content (for example, a handout on the steps associated with reducing fractions that has sample problems that the Ss work).
b. Probes are often in the form of questions. Wait time (limited hold) is how long the teacher waits (S is not answering) before asking another? Three Seconds. Teachers should follow-up with Ss who don't answer trying to make the interaction non-aversive ("check page so and so", etc.). Waiting, being non-aversive, and not giving up builds positive expectations. Teachers have favorites. Spread your questions evenly/fairly to every student (you'll probably need a protocol to do this right). Ask the question first, repeat it, and wait 3-4 seconds before calling on anyone. Avoid asking for volunteers (who raises her hand to answer a question?). Classes reflecting cooperative learning such as Slavin's ILE, will generally use exercises more effectively than classes not organized cooperatively. Question-asking strategy: Think, Pair, Share.
5. Provide independent practice. Allow Ss to work on new skills/concepts in class. Appropriate for math, reading, grammar, composition, cartography, languages, etc. Concepts are not as amenable to seatwork, but the rule-example-rule approach would probably work as a written exercise.
a. Teachers use too much seatwork. The time would better be spent engaged by the teacher presenting new information or reviewing. Many students haven't learned the self-control, etc. necessary for seatwork, and many teachers do not have a well designed class management system that can be used to promote/monitor it. Six rules to govern seatwork: (1) Make sure the Ss can do the seatwork before it's assigned. Seatwork is practice not instruction. (e.g., it is not to be used to learn the material; this is probably how it is most usually used.) (2) Keep seatwork assignments short; 10' or less if possible. This is similar to distributed vs. massed practice. (3) Provide sufficient, clear instructions so you don't have to answer a lot of questions that disrupt the flow of the practice. (4) Start them efficiently and avoid interrupting them. (5) Monitor their work to see that they are doing it and to provide corrective feedback. (6) Seatwork should influence grades. Why do it without a grade? If it's serious stuff, then it's worth a grade; if it isn't serious then why have them do it. Seatwork is a type of formal assessment.
6. Assess Performance and Provide Feedback. To monitor Ss' progress, Ss must be frequently assessed both formally and informally (REMEMBER, THE INFORMAL ASSESSMENTS WILL BE PROBES!). (See comments above in 3 a.) Frequent formal assessments produce higher levels of achievement than infrequent ones (and higher grades).
7. Provide distributed
practice and review. This formal assessment should require Ss to integrate
newer material with older. Two reasons: (a) amenable to homework which
is an important learning strategy, and (b) such homework can force review--a
good practice to keep old information "alive" (retrievable) in
memory.
Sample Lesson Plan Exercise
on Slavin's ILE
Note. There are 7 steps to
every lesson. Complete each step for the content on pp. 346-347 of the
3rd edition of Slavin's educational psychology text.
The audience for this lesson
is teachers (inservice and preservice) enrolled in a workshop associated
with cooperative learning strategies. Each participant can use a calculator.
1. Gain Ss attention.
a. start on time.
I. I'm John H. Hummel and
I will be leading you through this session which is designed to give you
enough information about Robert Slavin's Individual Learning Expectations
(ILE).
Advance Organizer: Slavin,
an educational psychologist usually associated with cooperative learning,
has developed the ILE which is an assessment strategy designed to
shape students' performance on formal assessments so they end-up doing
minimum-mastery or better on tests. The focus of ILE is to recognize each
student's improvement.
Behavioral Objectives:
By the end of the lesson on ILE, participants in the workshop will describe (verbally or in writing) or do, with 100% accuracy, each of the following:
a. the number of formal assessments a teacher using ILE should prepare and give each week
b. the minimum number of items each assessment should reflect
c. who should score the tests and when they should be scored
d. what a base score is, and how it is initially computed
e. compute base scores for each student given a list of their previous test performances
f. recompute students' base score (from e) given new test scores for each
g. Slavin's system for computing/awarding improvement points
h. compute specific improvement points awarded to each student when provided their most recent test scores using Slavin's system
i. how and where students receive feedback about their improvement on tests
j. two ways parents can receive feedback about their child's improvement on tests
k. two ways improvement points
can affect students' grade in a class using ILE.
II. Review of previous, related content:
1. 7 steps of lesson plans; BOs and AOs; and expository teaching
III. New content (narrative outline format; additionally, step IV-probes- are embedded in step III).
1. Lower performing students may "give up" and stop trying especially if they "fail when they work hard," and "fail when they don't work hard!"
probe: If you fail all the time, what would be the SMART thing to do when it's time to study?
2. The purpose of ILE is to recognize when students' performance on tests/quizzes is improving and to reward their improvement so they begin, ultimately, to mastery the material at the minimum competency level (or higher).
3. To begin using ILE, first average each students' test performance up to the present. If you are going to start ILE at the beginning of the year, generically set their base score using the letter grade they received in your subject from the previous year:
A=90 A- or B+ = 85
B=80 B- or C+=75
C=70 C- or D+=65
F=60 (notice that we may be starting poor students with a pretty high base score).
Probe: "_____, if a student got a B+ in your subject last year, what would you set her initial base score at?"
4. Each week students should take at least one test/quiz with at least 10 items on it. (If you use more than one test/week, use ILE with each.) A. After completing a test, have the Ss exchange papers and grade them in class. Explain the answer for each item. Compute each S's percentage correct on the test.
Probe: "______, if a student got 7 items right out of a possible 10, what is the student's (a) %tage correct, and (b) letter grade?"
5. Slavin's system for improvement points:
A. A test score 5 or more pts. below base = 0 improvement pts.
B. 4 pts. below to 4 above base = 1 improvement pt.
C. 5-9 pts. above base = 2 improvement pts.
D. 10 or more pts. above (or perfect scores) = 3 improvement pts.
Probe: "_______, if a student's base was 73 and she earned a 75 on her newest quiz, how many improvement pts. does she get?"
6. Average students' current test score with their previous average to recompute their new base score.
Sum of old grades + new test grade /total # of grades = new base (round to nearest whole number)
Probe: "_____, Tim has taken 4 tests so far. His average on them is 82. On his 5th test, he got a 93. (a) How many improvement points did he earn? (b) Compute his new base score.
7. When the tests are handed back, show the students' grade on the quiz and the number of improvement pts. awarded.
Probe: "_____, how many "grades" should there be on each student's returned tests?"
8. Improvement points can be (a) added to students' test grades as "bonus" points, (b) accumulated and "traded" for activities, reinforcers, etc., (c) accumulated during the marking period and to serve as an additional test grade, etc.
Probe: "_______, describe two ways a teacher can use improvement points." "_____, can you think of a 4th way to 'use' improvement points?"
9. Improvement points earned should regularly be communicated to parents via: weekly notes; comments on grade reports, having parents sign old tests and have them turned back to the teacher, etc.
V. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
For the following set of test scores on two students, compute their base score and indicate how many improvement points each student is awarded if, on the next test, each student earns an 83%
Student A: 65, 89, 77, 42
Student B: 55, 58, 67,
71
VI. FORMAL ASSESSMENT
1. ILE stands for what?
2. Explain/describe what a base score is, and how it can be set at the beginning of the year, or after the school year has already started.
3. Describe one purpose of ILE.
4. If a student starts your class with a B+ average from last year, what would you set her base score at?
5. Slavin's system for awarding
improvement points has a range of 0 to 3 possible points that can be earned
on each test. Describe the criteria used to award improvement points.
VII. REVIEW AND INTEGRATION
Write a one page APA style description that shows how ILE relates to the 5 tasks associated with teaching (refer back to unit 1, study question #3). This assignment is due on Friday by the end of class.
II. Direct Instruction Models. Sometimes called process-product studies.
I. A. The Economic Opportunity Act (l964) initiated a great number of anti-poverty programs.
l. Education was (and is) seen as the #l way to break the cycle of poverty, and the Head Start program was begun in l965
a. Data collected early in the Head Start program suggested that students' initial gains were lost when they began regular elementary school. PL 90-92 was passed by Congress in l967. It authorized Project Follow Through to monitor the success (failure) of the Head Start program.
2. Project Follow Through has often been described as the most expensive and comprehensive social study ever conducted in the world (over l billion dollars!). The program evolved into a longitudinal experiment designed to identify/evaluate the most effective methods to educate disadvantaged children.
3. The experiment allowed different (a) philosophies of ed., (b) curricula, and (c) instructional methods to be implemented and evaluated. As approaches (philosophies) were identified, its sponsors were allowed to develop instructional materials and to train teachers how to use them.
a. "sponsors" were selected during l968. Twelve formal proposals were funded with l0 additional ones being added over the next 3 years.
b. Sites. 225 school districts were nominated as "test" sites, 5l were selected to participate based on the districts' ability to put in place a comprehensive evaluation unit. Each site was paired with sponsored models. Local representatives were allowed to select the model (phil.) they thought most compatible with the goals/interests of their district. Participating students received daily instruction based on the model selected from kindergarten through 3rd grade.
c. The models were clustered into three broad categories according to their primary emphasis: Basic Skills: included Direct Instruction, Behavior Analysis and the Language Development (bilingual) Approach. Each of the 3 models focused on teaching basic skills in reading, arithmetic, spelling and language. Cognitive-Conceptual: included the Florida Parent Education, Tucson Early Educational Model, and the Cognitively Oriented Curriculum. Each model attempted to teach "learning-to-learn" and problem-solving skills. Affective-Cognitive: included Responsive Education, Bank Street, and Open Education. Each emphasized developing high self-concept, positive attitudes toward learning, and "learning-to-learn" skills.
d. The children in each model were periodically assessed in specific achievement areas (including basic academic skills), general problem-solving skills, and on self-concept. Data were collected on the kids annually from kindergarten through the end of the 3rd grade. (These are formal data collected by Project Follow Through; other researchers have systematically assessed the performance of the Follow Through kids and their cohorts [paired districts]. One such study compared Follow-through kids from the Ocean Hill-Brownsville district of NYC, one of the 2 or 3 poorest in NYC. They found:
l. Significantly more FT Ss graduated from H.S. (57% v 35%)
2. " more FT Ss applied to college (39% v 10%)
3. Fewer FT Ss dropped out of school (39% v 58%)
4. FT Ss were reading at grade in the 9th grade (md.=9.5 on CAT) while their comparison group scored (md=7.1)
e. Results of evaluation.
1. All kids in the Basic Skills programs did better on measures of academic skills than their cohorts. All models other than those labeled basic skills had more negative than positive outcomes on measures in the basic skills domain. This means that disadvantaged kids learn better in traditional programs in elementary schools than they do if taught using the non-basic skills methods evaluated in FT! Restated, the FT kids in non-basic skills programs did worse than their cohorts!
2. The DI model showed greater gains in all three areas (e.g., basics, cognitive domain [reading comprehension and problem-solving] and affective [self-concept & responsibility for one's own performance]) domain than the other models.
f. If DI is so good, why are these other models being used?
l. FT was designed to identify effective instructional methods. One criterion of effectiveness is adoption (catch 22 coming-up!). Methods can't be adopted unless they're available to the public (i.e., schools). So, the Joint Dissemination Review Panel and the National Diffusion Network (these federal agencies are charged with disseminating info. about instructional methods) received information from all the methods examined by Project FT and 22 of them were validated as exemplary, and once a program is validated as effective it's packaged and disseminated to school districts.
Even though, among those 22, there were many that failed to improve academic achievement in project FT! JDRP was criticized for this practice, but they wanted to be "fair" and represent the multiplicity of methods in education, even though the practice (the way information about the various programs is disseminated) makes it almost impossible for school districts to discriminate between effective and ineffective programs. Thus, the bureaucracy defeated the very reason PFT, JDRP and NDN were created to meet.
2. Other reasons why ineffective instructional methods continue to be used: a. Fed. funding decisions: validated programs received static or lowered funds; nonvalidated received increased level in order to become validated! b. policymakers are typically not educational experts; they get advice from professionals and these folks often have philosophies that differ from what FT showed effective (e.g., Chair of the N. Advisory Com. was the dean of the Bank St. Col. of Ed., whose model PFT showed to be ineffective!). c. Colleges of Ed.: have a vested interest in the status quo. d. Teachers: often unaware of research that shows what is and is not effective. Their teaching behaviors are usually very different than the teaching behaviors used in DI. e. Administrators of local school districts don't want the disruption that might occur when retraining of teachers is required, even if they could afford ($) it. f. Mainstream publishers usually don't initiate development of "unusual" materials but react to the demands of the edu.'l estab. g. The public doesn't know enough to demand better materials; parents accept that it's their kid's fault that the child isn't learning!
All of us, parents, teachers,
professors, administrators and "bureaucrats" must realize that
the research is unequivocal: "how well students learn is more a
function of how they are taught than any other factor."
What is Direct Instruction?
Direct Instruction (DI)such as DISTAR (Direct Instruction In Arithmetic and Reading) requires that (a) content be sequenced logically, (b) a complete set of behavioral objectives is developed for each lesson and all skills/concepts to be learned/taught, and (c) complete task analyses be made for each objective and the instructional method tested for effectiveness. DI, according to Dale and Cole (1988)1, embodies the following points:
Direct Instruction is based on extensive task analysis of academic skills. The analysis is then used as the basis of systematic and explicit teaching of academic skills...with a goal of maximizing academic learning time. The method, like the content, is "direct" in that the program is teacher directed and fast paced, utilizing highly structured presentation of material with frequent opportunities for student response and reinforcement or correction. (p. 440)
The main principle in DI materials is that the information must be clear and unambiguous. EXAMPLE: how you teach a kid the "long a" sound in a word.
A. Six Principles of curriculum design (Reading example)
l. Explicit teaching of rules and strategies. Includes how to apply the rules and strategies.
2. Example selection. Use a wide selection of words that illustrate the rule. (Practice effect through repetition) And, use words with "minimal differences" (e.g.., same and Sam) to aid in teaching discriminations (applying the rule).
3. Example sequencing. Keep everything constant including Minimal differences.
4. Covertization. Rules and strategies, at the beginning of a lesson, are very overt (kids cite them, for example). But, if they cited the rule each time they wouldn't progress fast or far. As the lesson progresses, the overt structure is faded and by its end the kids recognize and apply the rule silently, independently and quickly.
5. Teaching general case strategies. The long a lesson is a specific lesson using VCe The next series of lessons would apply the VCe rule to other .
6. Correction procedures. Errors can result from lack of information (repetition and enough samples) or misapplication of a rule. If the child misapplies a rule, the teacher prompts the student to use the rule's steps; once the child applies the rule correctly, the prompts are again withdrawn. Of course, if the lesson is both designed and executed correctly, there should not be a lack of information. (I've not noticed any "lack of information" problems with the materials you will be using.)
References
Englemann, S. (l988). Theories, theories, theories. ADI News, 7(3).
Watkins, C. L. (l988). Project Follow Through: A story of the identification and neglect of effective instruction. Youth Policy, l0(7), 7-11.
Major Pedagogies2 :
According to Bartz and Miller (1991), teachers can present new information to Ss using one or more of the following (NOTE: combinations are common because no one method works for all content, students, or teachers all the time):
Teaching Techniques/Methods
___________________________________
WHOLE GROUP INS. DIRECT INSTRUCTION
TEACHING BY OBJ. DISCOVERY (IMPL. OR INQ.)
ADAPTIVE/IND. INS. THEMATIC APPROACH
MASTERY LEARNING PEER TUTORING
COOPERATIVE LEARNING LEARNING BY DOING
LEARNING STYLES CAI
___________________________________________________
QUALITY INSTRUCTION IS A CRITICAL COMPONENT FOR BOTH TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFECTIVE LEARNING. ONE FACTOR ASSOCIATED WITH THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION IS THE TEACHING METHOD USED TO TRANSMIT INFORMATION TO STUDENTS.
WHOLE-GROUP INSTRUCTION--TEACHER SPEND MOST OF THE ENGAGED TIME TEACHING THE ENTIRE GROUP. (INCREASED TIME-ON-TASK). TEACHING BY OBJECTIVES--OFTEN INCORPORATED INTO OTHER METHODS. MAKE CLEAR TO SELF AND STUDENTS EXACTLY WHAT Ss SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER LEARNING. THIS APPROACH CAN HELP TEACHERS SPECIFY SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE THAT GENERALIZE (I.E., ONES THAT ARE NOT INERT), IS AN EXCELLENT LINK TO ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION, AND CAN ACCOMMODATE, OVERTLY, ALL LEVELS OF THE BLOOM et al. TAXONOMY.
ADAPTIVE/INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION--INSTRUCTION IS BASED ON STUDENTS' ENTRY SKILLS AND VARIES ACROSS STUDENTS ACCORDING TO THEIR APTITUDE. OFTEN IT FEATURES: SELF-PACING, MASTERY REQUIREMENTS BEFORE ATTEMPTING NEW CONTENT, A VARIETY OF MATERIALS AND EXERCISES ARE AVAILABLE TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN.
MASTERY LEARNING--ALL Ss CAN LEARN THE BASIC CURRICULUM THOUGH SOME REQUIRE MORE TIME THAN OTHERS. COOPERATIVE LEARNING--STUDENTS FORMALLY HELP ONE ANOTHER TO MASTER CONTENT. IT INVARIABLY INVOLVES: GROUP INSTRUCTION BY TEACHER;
ASSIGN Ss TO SMALL MIXED ABILITY GROUPS; ASSIGN EXERCISES BASED ON THE GROUP INSTRUCTION ; AND ESTABLISHES POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCY SUCH AS ILE; JIGSAW, ETC.
LEARNING STYLES--EMPHASIZES INSTRUCTIONAL TACTICS THAT ARE APPROPRIATE TO THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT'S LEARNING STYLE. DIRECT INSTRUCTION--THERE ARE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF THIS INCLUDING DISTAR. VIRTUALLY ALL FORMS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION REQUIRE THE FOLLOWING: FORMAL INSTRUCTION/REVIEW ON RELEVANT BACKGROUND CONTENT; PRESENT NEW CONTENT BASED ON OBJECTIVES AND TASK ANALYSES; GUIDED PRACTICE; ASSESSMENT WITH REMEDIATION OPPORTUNITIES; & INDEPENDENT PRACTICE.
DISCOVERY--CONCENTRATES
ON STRUCTURING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT SO THAT STUDENTS LEARN/DISCOVERY
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FACTS, ETC. THEY HAVE BEEN TAUGHT. HIGHLY ENACTIVE
(I.E., LEARN BY DOING). INTEGRATED THEMATIC INSTRUCTION--INSTRUCTION
WITHIN A CLASS (AND OFTEN ACROSS CLASSES) IS CENTERED ON A PARTICULAR ISSUE
OR TOPIC (I.E., A THEME). PEER TUTORING--OFTEN USED IN COMBINATION
WITH OTHER METHODS. IT IS VERY COST EFFECTIVE BECAUSE IT USES Ss WHO'VE
MASTERED CONTENT TO HELP OTHER Ss WHO HAVE NOT YET MASTERED THE MATERIAL.
BOTH STUDENTS TYPICALLY IMPROVE IN A PEER TUTORING SESSION. LEARNING
BY DOING--AKA ENACTMENT. IT INVOLVES SIMULATIONS, EXPERIMENTS, ETC.
THIS APPROACH IS ESPECIALLY USEFUL WHEN IT IS USED TO REINFORCE OTHER TEACHING
METHODS. FOR EXAMPLE, TEACH A CONCEPT THEN HAVE STUDENTS USE THE CONCEPT
CONCRETELY. COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION--CAI. SOFTWARE INSTRUCTIONAL
PROGRAMS THAT REFLECT HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED CONTENT. CAI CAN BE AN ESPECIALLY
USEFUL COMPLEMENT TO OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS.
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Last Updated: May 20, 1997