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Valdosta State University |
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Valdosta State University |
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I. Learning: any relatively permanent change in beh./performance resulting from experience
II. Three basic types: classical (simplest), operant, and observational
III. Classical Conditioning.
A. Terms (stated as equivalences): conditioning = learning; behavior = response; elicits = causes; reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously stopped once they start); emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped); innate = inborn; stimulus = environmental event; antecedent = "before" (e.g., before a response); consequent or consequences = "after" (e.g., after a response).
B. Classical conditioning was the lst type of learning to be discovered and studied (hence the name classical); it is called Pavlovian conditioning to honor its discoverer, Ivan Pavlov; it is technically called respondent (by Skinner) conditioning (a more descriptive name) since in this type of learning, one is responding to an environmental antecedent.
C. Classical conditioning is S elicits>R conditioning since the antecedent stimulus (singular) causes the reflexive/involuntary response to occur.
1. classical conditioning starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior elicited/caused by an antecedent environmental event. Example: if I blow air into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary/conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.
2. the specific model for classical conditioning is:
US
elicits> UR
the US-->UR represents
a reflex
NS-------> response of interest
doesn't occur the NS is a neutral stimulus
since it doesn't elicit the UR.
CS elicits > CR by being repeatedly paired with the US, the NS is transformed into a CS that, when presented by itself, elicits or causes the CR which is the same involuntary response as the UR.
3. In classical conditioning no new behaviors are learned. Instead, an association is developed (through pairing) between the NS & US so that the animal/person responds to both events/stimuli (plural) in the same way; restated, after conditioning, both the US and the CS will elicit the same involuntary response (the animal learns to respond reflexively to a new stimulus).
4. Pavlov's original experiment
(with a hungry dog) shown using the model in # 2 above:
meat salivation
US elicits> UR
bell
NS
---->NR (e.g., nor response)
bell salivation
CS elicits> CR
D. Phenomena associated with classical conditioning: l. Extinction: if the CS is repeatedly presented by itself (without the UR) the conditioning/association process is reversed, and the CS will become an NS.
a. spontaneous recovery: sometimes, after extinction, if the CS is again presented, it will "spontaneously" elicit the CR.
2. Discrimination: detecting differences between stimuli. In discrimination, which can occur naturally or be taught (using extinction and pairing), the animal learns respond to some, but not all, similar stimuli.
3. Generalization: treating different stimuli as though they are the same. In generalization, which can be natural or learned (by pairing different NS's with the US), the animal learns to do the same reflexive response to different antecedent stimuli.
4. Higher (or second) order conditioning. Classical conditioning doesn't have to involve pairing an NS with a US. If an NS is paired with an existing CS, the NS will also become a CS.
E. Classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior in humans. Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. For example, if a particular movie or novel produces emotional feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.
F. Pairing methods: Four ways to pair/associate a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). l. Trace: Present & remove NS before presenting US. NS______
US ______
2. Delay: Present NS first, present US before NS is removed. NS______
US_______
3. Simultaneous: Present NS & US at the same time. NS_____
US_____
4. Backward: Present & remove US before presenting NS. NS_______ US_______
IV. Operant Conditioning; sometimes described as learning through consequences
A. The first name for this type of
learning (instrumental) is credited to Thorndike. He taught
kittens to manipulate a latch (e.g., an instrument) using consequences.
Skinner renamed instrumental as operant because it is
more descriptive (i.e., in this learning, one is "operating"
on, and is influenced by, the environment). Where classical
conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning's
is often viewed as R-->S learning since it is the consequence
that follows the response that influences whether the response
is likely/unlikely to occur again. It is through operant conditioning
that voluntary responses are learned.
B. The 3-term model of operant conditioning: S--> R -->S Responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it. While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning doesn't elicit/cause the response (as it does in classical), it can influence it. When the antecedent does influence the likelihood of a response occuring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus. l. There are two types of discriminative stimuli, SD's increase the likelihood that a voluntary response will occur, while SÆ's decrease the likelihood that a voluntary response will occur.
C. Consequences. It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary response (e.g., the response's
consequence) that determines whether the response is likely/unlikely to occur again.
Environmental events/stimuli that are used as consequences are called reinforcers.
l. All reinforcers can strengthen the likelihood/probability of a response occuring again depending on whether they are contingently removed or added.
a. Reinforcers come in two varieties: positive and negative.
b. Positive reinforcers strengthen responses they follow. After a behavior if you add/present a positive reinforcer, the behavior is will occur more often in the future. This process is called postive reinforcement. But, if after a behavior you remove a positive reinforcer, the behavior will occur less often. (This process is called Type II punishment or response cost.)
c. Negative reinforcers
(sometimes called punishers) weaken responses they follow.
This process is called punishment or Type I punishment.
After a behavior, if you add/present a negative reinforcer,
the response will occur less frequently in the future. But,
if after a behavior you remove a negative reinforcer,
the behavior will occur more often in the future. (This process
is called negative reinforcement.)
Entry-level Skills/Definitions Needed to Use the Alternate Taxonomy
a. Discriminative stimulus: An antecedent environmental event/signal that alters the likelihood of an operant occurring.
SD: A signal that sets the occasion for a response to occur; it increases the likelihood that the response will be emitted.
SÆ: A signal that sets the occasion for a response to not occur; it decreases the likelihood that the response will be emitted.
b. Response: Designated as an R. An R represents an emitted behavior that is functionally or topographically a member of a response class.
c. Reinforcer: A reinforcer is
any environmental event that alters the future probability of
responses/behaviors it follows.
l. Positive Reinforcers: Symbolically designated as (+). Positive reinforcers strengthen responses that they follow.
2. Negative Reinforcers: Symbolically designated as (-). Negative reinforcers weaken responses that they follow.
d. Multiplicative rules. These mathematical rules specify that when: (a) a positive is multiplied by a positive, the product is also positive; (b) a negative is multiplied by a positive the product is negative; and (c) a negative is multiplied by a negative, the product is positive.
e. Reinforcement: Any operant process that strengthens the future probability of a response.
Four Basic Operant Processes:
l. Positive reinforcement-After a response, present a positive reinforcer and the response is strengthened (e.g., the response is more likely to occur in the future).
Signaled Positive Reinforcement: SD-->R--> + (+) = + 2. Negative reinforcement-after a response, remove a negative reinforcer and the response is strengthened (e.g., the response is more likely to occur in the future).
Signaled Negative Reinforcement: SD-->R--> - (-) = +
f. Punishment-after a response, present a negative reinforcer and the response is weakened (e.g., the response is less likely to occur in the future).
Signaled Punishment: SÆ-->R--> + (-) = -
g. Response cost-after a response, remove a positive reinforcer and the response is weakened (e.g., the response is less likely to occur in the future).
Signaled Response Cost:
SÆ-->R--> - (+) = -
D. Schedules of Reinforcement: Collectively, the schedules specificy WHEN a response will produce a consequence. Two classes: continuous and intermittent
l. continuous: FR-l. Each time the response occurs, the consequence occurs. Used to teach new behavior and when decreasing behavior (Type I and Type II punishment should always use the FR-l schedule).
2. Intermittent or partial schedules: some, but not all, occurrences of a response produce a positive reinforcer. These schedules can be time-based or response-based. These schedules are used to increase the rate of a response.
a. Time-based are called interval schedules: These schedules require that a specified amount of time pass before the response is reinforced. The time period can be fixed
(e.g., fixed interval schedules) (always the same) or variable (e.g., variable interval schedules)(changes after each reinforcement delivery). Example: a fixed interval (FI) 30 minutes schedule would require that after 30' pass (if the response occured during the 30' it would go unrewarded) the lst occurrence of the response is rewarded. In a Variable Interval (VI) 30', a set amount of time (probably NOT 30') must pass then the lst occurence of the response is rewarded and a new interval is set (in VI schedules, the time period represents the average amount of time between when responses are rewarded).
b. Response-based schedules are called ratio schedules since the response must occur a set number of times before it is reinforced (i.e., there is a ratio between how many times the behavior must occur and the occurence of the reward). Fixed ratio (FR) require a set number of responses. So, an FR-5 schedule says that every 5th occurence of the behavior is reinforced. Variable ratio (VR) schedules require a set number of responses to occur, but the number required varies or changes after each reinforcement delivery. So, a VR-5 means that the average number of responses required is five, but not every 5th response is rewarded.
Analyzing Examples of Operant Conditioning
I. Diagram and define the four basic operant processes (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and response cost).
II. Use the name of each process for cues:
l. Postive Reinforcement: (a) the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior.
(b) the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive reinforcer is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., "positive" as in + sign for addition).
2. Negative reinforcement: the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior.
(b) the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative reinforcer is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted (i.e., "negative" as in a - sign for subtraction).
3. Since there are only four basic processes, if the first two (positive and negative reinforcement) strengthen behavior, then the other two (punishment and response cost) must weaken behavior. If positive reinforcement strengthens a response by adding a positive reinforcer, then response cost has to weaken a behavior by subtracting a positive reinforcer. And, if negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative reinforcer, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative reinforcer. Thus: In punishment the reinforcer is added, and in response cost the reinforcer is subtracted.
IV. Heuristics To Use When Analyzing Examples:
l. What behavior in the example was increased or decreased?
a. Was the behavior increased (if yes, the process has to be either positive or negative reinforcement), or decreased (if the behavior was decreased the process is either response cost or punishment).
2. What was the consequence/reinforcer that followed the behavior in the example?
a. Was the consequence/reinforcer added or removed? If added
the process was either positive reinforcement or punishment.
If the it was subtracted, the process was either negative reinforcement or response cost.
V. Examples:
A. "Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on every Friday during the month of June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped-out for three weeks.
l. What behavior was changed?camping-out
a. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?weakened
(eliminate positive and negative reinforcement)
2. What was the consequence? having water thrown on him
a. Was the consequence added or subtracted? added
process: Since the consequence was added and the behavior was weakened, the process was punishment
A. "Everytime Madge raises her hand in class she is called on. She raised her hand 3 time during the first class, 3 times in the second and 4 times during the last class."
l. What behavior was changed?handraising
a. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?strengthened
(eliminate response cost and punishment)
2. What was the consequence? being called on
a. Was the consequence added or subtracted?added
process: since the consequence was added and the behavior was strengthened, the process is positive reinforcement
C. Gregory is on a token economy. When he follows a direction/command he earns a point. At the end of each day, he can "buy" freetime, t.v. priviledges, etc. with his points. When he misbehaves or doesn't follow a command, he loses points. Andrew used to call his mom names. Since he has been on the point system, his name calling has been reduced to almost zero."
l. What behavior was changed?name calling
a. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?weakened
(eliminate positive and negative reinforcement)
2. What was the consequence? losing points
a. Was the consequence added or subtracted?subtracted
process: since the consequence was subtracted and the behavior was weakened, the process is response cost
B. "John does not go to the dentist every 6-months for a checkup. Instead, he waits until a tooth really hurts, then goes to the dentist."
l. What behavior was changed?going to the dentist
a. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?strengthened
(eliminate response cost and punishment)
2. What was the consequence? tooth no longer hurting
a. Was the consequence added or subtracted?subtracted
process: since the consequence was subtracted and the behavior was strengthened, the process is negative reinforcement